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Reference List: Legionella

Healthline Aerosol Medicine provides this list of references on the above named topic as a convenience to respiratory therapists, pulmonologists and medical aerosol scientists. You may view or print the list or use "cut/copy/paste" commands to insert into documents. Great for students and researchers! Disclaimer: Please note that this list is not guaranteed to be either exhaustive or completely up-to-date. We encourage anyone who would like to update this list, or share their special list of references on any legitimate aerosol medicine, respiratory therapy or related subject to forward it to Healthline Aerosol Medicine by e-mail for posting at this web site.

Legionella

1. McDade, J.E., Sheppard, C.C., Fraser, D.W., et al. Legionnaires’ disease: isolation of a bacterium and demonstration of its role in other respiratory diseases. N. Engl. J. Med. 1977;287:1197-1203.

2.Winn, Jr., W.C. Legionella. In Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 7^th Ed. Murray, P.R., Barron, E.J., Pfaller, M.A., Tenover, F.C. and Yolken, R.H. Eds. Washington, D.C., American Society for Microbiology 1999:573-585.

3. Parry, M.F., Stampleman, L., Hutchinson, J.H., et al. Waterborne Legionella bozemanii and nosocomial pneumonia in immunosuppressed patients. Ann. Intern. Med. 1985;103:205-210.
4. Doebbeling, B.N., Ishak, M.A., Wade, B.H., et al. Nosocomial Legionella micdadei pneumonia: 10 years experience and case-control study. J. Hosp. Infect. 1989;13:2898-298.
5. Reingold, A.L., Thomason, B.M., Brake, B.J. Legionella pneumonia in the United States: the distribution of serogroups and species causing human illness. J. Infect. Dis. 1984;149-819.
6. Girod, J.C., Reichman, W.C., Winn, Jr., D.N., et al. Pneumonic and nonpneumonic forms of legionellosis. The result of a common source exposure to Legionella pneumophila. Arch. Intern. Med. 1982;142:545-547.
7. Stout, J.E. and Yu, V.L. Legionellosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997;337:682-687.
8. Marston, B.J., Plouffe, J.F., File, T.M., et al. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization: results of a population-based surveillance study in Ohio. Arch. Intern. Med. 1997;157:1709-1718.
9. Breiman, R.F. and Butler, J.C. Legionnaires’ disease: clinical, epidemiological, and public health perspectives. Semin. Respir. Infect. 1998;13:84-89.
10. Klein, N.C. and Cunha, B.A. Treatment of legionnaires’ disease. Semin. Respir. Infect. 1998;13:140-146.
11. Martin, S.J., Pendland, S.L., Chen, C., et al. In vitro synergy testing of macrolide-quinolone combinations against 41 isolates of Legionella. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1996;40:1419-1421.
12. Straus, W.L., Plouffe, J.F., File, T.M., et al. Risk factors for domestic acquisition of Legionnaire’s disease. Arch. Intern. Med. 1996;156:1685-1692.
13. Marston, B.J., Lipman, H.B., Breimen, R.F. Surveillance for Legionnaire’s disease: risk factors for morbidity and mortality. Arch. Intern. Med. 1994;154:2417-2422.
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for Prevention of Nosocomial Pneumonia. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 1997;46 (RR-1):1-79.
15. Hospital Infection Control Program Advisory Committee. Legionnaires’ Disease: Recommendations for the prevention of nosocomial Legionnaires’ Disease. March 26, 1996. www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/hip/pneumonia/2_legion.htm
16. Kool, J.L., Fiore, A.E., Kioski, C.M., et al. More than 10 years of unrecognized nosocomial transmission of legionnaire’s disease among transplant patients. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 1998;19:898-904.
17. Lepine, L., Jernigan, D.B., Butler, J.C., et al. A recurrent outbreak of nosocomial legionnaire’s disease detected by urinary antigen testing: evidence for long-term colonization of a hospital plumbing system. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 1998;19:905-910.
18. Fiore, A.E., Butler, J.C., Emori, T.G. and Gaynes, R.P. A survey of methods used to detect nosocomial legionellosis among participants in the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 1999;20:412-416.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Case definitions for infectious conditions under public health surveillance. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 1997;46 (RR-10).
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Case definitions for public health surveillance. Morbid. Mortal. Weekly Rep. 1990;39 (RR-13).
21. Kazandjian, D., Chiew, R., and Gilbert, G.L. Rapid diagnosis of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 infection with the Binax enzyme immunoassay urinary antigen test. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1997;35:954-956.
22. Stout, J.E. Laboratory diagnosis of Legionnaires’ disease: the expanding role of the Legionella urinary antigen test. Clin. Microbiol. Newsletter 2000;22:62-64.
23. Ta, A.C., Stout, J.E., Yu, V.L., and Wagener, M.L. Comparison of culture methods for monitoring Legionella species in hospital potable water systems and recommendations for standardization of such methods. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1995;33:118-212.
24. Goetz, A.M., Stout, J.E., Jacobs, S.L., et. al. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease discovered in community hospitals following cultures of the water system: seek and ye shall find. Am. J. Infect. Control 1998;26:8-11.
25. Buesching, W.J., et al. Enhanced primary isolation of Legionella pneumophila from clinical specimens by low pH treatment. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1983;17:1153-1155.
26. Stout, J.E., Yu, V.L., and Best, M.G. Ecology of Legionella pneumophila within water distribution systems. Appl. Eviron. Microbiol. 1985;49:221-228.
27. Blatt, S.P., Parkinson, M.D., Pace, E., et al. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease: aspiration as a primary mode of disease acquisition. Am. J. Med. 1993;95:16-22.
28. Venzia, R.A., Agresta, M.D., Hanley, E.M., et al. Nosocomial legionellosis associated with aspiration of nasogastric feedings diluted in tap water. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 1994;15:529-533.
29. Hanrahan, J.P., Morse, D.L., Scharf, V.B., et al. A community hospital outbreak of legionellosis: transmission by potable hot water. Am. J. Epidemiol. 10987;125:639-649.
30. Arnow, P.M., Chou, T., Shapiro, E.N., and Kretzschmar, C. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease caused by aerosolized tap water from respiratory devices. J. Infect. Dis. 1982;146:460-467.
31. Breiman, R.F., Fields, B.S., Sanden, G.N., et al. Association of shower use with Legionnaires’ disease. JAMA 1990;263:2924-2926.
32. Brown, C.M., Nuorti, P.J., Breiman, R.F., et al. A community outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease linked to hospital cooling towers: an epidemiological method to calculate dose of exposure. Int. J. Epidemiol. 1999;28:353-359.
33. Keller, D.W., Hajjeh, R., DeMaria, A., et al. Community outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease: an investigation confirming the potential for cooling towers to transmit Legionella species. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1996;22:257-261.
34. Fiore, A.E., Nuorti, J.P., Levine, O.S., et al. Epidemic Legionnaires’ disease two decades later: old sources, new diagnostic methods. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1998;26:426-433.
35. Stone, M., Ahmed, J., Evans, J. The continuing risk of domestic hot water scalds to the elderly. Burns 2000;26:347-50.
36. Second Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Outbreak of Legionnaires’ Disease in Stafford in April 1985, London, England. Her Majesty’s Stationary Office (HMSO) 1987.
37. Alary, M., Joly J.R. Factors contributing to the contamination of hospital water distribution systems. J. Infect. Dis. 1992;165:565-9.
38. Vickers, R.M., Yu, V.L., Hanna, S.S., et al. Determinants of Legionella pneumophila contamination of water distribution systems: 15-hospital prospective study. Infect. Control 1987;8:357-363.
39. Patterson, W.J., Hay, J., Seal, D.V., McLuckie, J.C. Colonization of transplant unit water supplies with Legionella and protozoa: precautions required to reduce the risk of legionellosis. J. Hosp. Infect. 1997;37:7-17.
40. Marrie, T.J., Green, T., Burbridge, S. Legionellaceae in the potable water of Nova Scotia hospital and Halifax residences. Epidemiol. Infect. 1994;112:143-150.
41. Liu, W.K., Yu, V.L., McClure, J., Kominos, S. Nosocomial legionnaires’ disease uncovered in a prospective pneumonia study: implications for underdiagnosis. JAMA 1983;249:3184-8.
42. Kool, J.L., Bergmire-Sweey, D., Butler, J.C., et al. Hospital characterisitics associated with colonization of water systems by Legionella and risk of nosocomial legionnaires’ disease: a cohort study of 15 hospitals. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 1999;20:798-805.
43. Yu, V.L. Resolving the controversy on environmental cultures for Legionella: A modest proposal. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 1998;19:893-7.
44. Stout, J.E., Best, M.G., and Yu, V.L. Susceptibility of Members of the family Legionellaceae to thermal stress: Implications for heat eradication methods in water distribution systems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1986;52:396-399.
45. Heimberger, T., Birkhead, G., Bornstein, D., et al. Control of nosocomial Legionnaire’s disease through hot water flushing and supplemental chlorination of potable water. J. Infect. Dis. 1991;163:413.
46. Synder, M.B., Siwicki, M., Wireman, J., et al. Reduction in Legionella pneumophila through heat flushing followed by continuous supplemental chlorination of hospital hot water. J. Infect. Dis. 1990;162:127-132.
47. Grosserode, M., Wenzel, R., Pfaller, M., and Helms, C. Continuous hyperchlorination for control of nosocomial Legionella pneumophila: a ten year follow-up of efficacy, environmental effects, and costs. In: Legionella-Current Status and Emerging Perspectives. Barbaree, J.M., Breiman, R.F. and Dufour, A.P., Eds. Washington, D.C. American Society for Microbiology; 1993.
48. Landeen, L.K., Yahya, M.T. and Gerba, C.P. Efficacy of copper and silver ions and reduced levels of free chlorine in inactivation of Legionella pneumophila. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1989;55:3045-3050.
49. Liu, Z., Stout, J.L., Tedesco, L., et al. Controlled evaluation of copper-silver ionization in eradicating Legionella pneumophila from a hospital water distribution system. J. Infect. Dis. 1994;169:919-922.
50. Liu, Z. Stout, J.E., Boldin, M., et al. Intermittent use of copper-silver ionization for Legionella control in water distribution systems: a potential option in buildings housing individuals at low risk of infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1998;26:138-140.
51. Stout, J.E., Lin, Y.E., Goetz, A.M., and Muder, R.R. Controlling Legionella in hospital water systems: experience with the superheat-and-flush method and copper-silver ionization. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 1998;19:911-914.
52. Mietzner, S., Schwille, R.C., Farley, A., et al. Efficacy of thermal treatment and copper-silver ionization for controlling Legionella pneumophila in high-volume hot water plumbing systems in hospitals. Am. J. Infect. Control 1997;25:452-457.
53. Biurrun, A., Caballero, L., Pelaz, C., et al. Treatment of a Legionella pneumophila-colonized water distribution system using copper-silver ionization and continuous chlorination. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 1999;20:426-428.
54. Rohr, U, Senger, M., Selenda, F., Turley, R., Wilhelm, M. Four years of experience with silver-copper ionization for control of legionella in a German university hospital hot water plumbing system. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1999;29:1507-11.
55. Muraca, P., Stout, J.E., and Yu, V.L. Comparative assessment of chlorine, heat, ozone, and UV light for killing Legionella pneumophila within a model plumbing system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1987;53:447-453.
56. Farr, B.M., et al. Evaluation of UV light for disinfection of hospital works contaminated with Legionella. Lancet 1988;2:669.

57. Cunliffe, D.A. Inactivation of Legionella pneumophila by monochloramine. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1990;68:453-459.

58. Kool, J.L., Carpenter, J.C., and Fields, B.S. Effect of monochloramine disinfection of municipal drinking water on risk of nosocomial Legionnaire’s disease. Lancet 1999;353:272-277.
59. Pic-Albas, L., Donegan, N.E., Witherell, L.E., et al. Short trial of monochloramine for legionella disinfection in a hospital setting. Abstract, 4^th Decennial international Conference on Nosocomial and Healthcare-Associated Infections. Atlanta, GA, March 5-9, 2000.
60. ASHRAE Guideline 12-2000. Minimizing the risk of legionellosis associated with building water systems. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA., 1999. (available through the ASHRAE web site: www.ASHRAE.org)
61. Best, M., Yu, V.L., Stout, J.E., et al. Legionellaceae in the hospital water supply- epidemiological link with disease and evaluation of a method of control of nosocomial legionnaires’ disease and Pittsburgh pneumonia. Lancet 1983;2:307-310.
62. Allegheny County Health Department. Approaches to prevention and control of Legionella infection in Allegheny county health care facilities. 2^nd ed. Pittsburgh, PA: Allegheny County Health Department. 1997:1-15.

63. Report of the Maryland Scientific Working Group to Study Legionella in Water Systems in Healthcare Institutions, June 14, 2000, Baltimore MD

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